Topic 2: Uzbekistan is one of the ancient centers of human civilization.

Outline:

2.1. Formation of Uzbek civilization and the early ancestors of humanity

2.2. Characteristics of the paleolithic, mesolithic, and neolithic periods

2.3. Eneolithic cultures and their significance

Key terms and phrases: Civilization, Turan Civilization, Central Asian Civilization, Local Civilization, Anthropogenesis, Early Humanity, Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Hunting, Fishing, Animal Husbandry, Agriculture, Tools and Implements, Migration, Material and Spiritual Culture, Eneolithic, Metalworking, Urbanization, Urban Culture, Trade, Exchange of Goods, Statehood, Civilization Development.

Objective of the topic: To provide students with a comprehensive understanding of the formation of civilization in Uzbekistan, the early ancestors of humanity, the characteristics of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods, as well as the Eneolithic cultural developments and their significance. Through this, students will gain insights into the processes of civilization development in the region, the emergence of material and spiritual culture, and the socio-economic life of ancient societies.

2.1. Formation of Uzbek civilization and the early ancestors of humanity

Scholars widely acknowledge Uzbekistan as one of the primary cradles of human civilization and an inseparable component of global cultural development. The emergence and evolution of early civilizations, their scientific-theoretical analysis, as well as historical-philosophical approaches to understanding civilizations, have been extensively studied in both Eastern and Western contexts. Notable contributions in this field have been made by distinguished scholars, including Arnold Toynbee, Oswald Spengler, Karl Jaspers, Igor M.Dyakonov, Vladimir Masson, Alexander Vasiliev, M.Barg, M.Albedil, A.Koptev, and Yu.Yakovets, whose research has provided comparative insights into the development, decline, and interaction of civilizations across regions and epochs.

More recent studies by Uzbek historians, such as A. Asqarov, R. Sulaymonov, E.Rtveladze, A.Sagdullaev, U.Mavlonov, T.Shirinov, Sh.Shayduldayev, and B.Eshov, have conceptually affirmed the notions of the “Turan Civilization,” “Central Asian Civilization,” and “Uzbekistan Civilization.” These works highlight the unique historical trajectories of civilizations within the territory of Uzbekistan while emphasizing their interconnectedness with broader regional and global processes. It is evident that civilizations develop under the influence of specific socio-economic conditions, natural environments, and cultural dynamics. The historical development of Uzbekistan demonstrates unique pathways of civilization, although mutual interactions and exchanges among neighboring cultures were significant and inevitable. As the President of Uzbekistan, Shavkat Mirziyoyev, has emphasized: “Just as in our history, the creation of ancient culture involved the contributions of numerous ethnic groups, peoples, and nations. This is natural, because at no time and in no place has culture been the product of a single nation. Every civilization emerges as a result of the collective activities and effective influences of multiple peoples, nations, and ethnic communities.”

Thus, the study of Uzbekistan’s ancient civilization not only deepens our understanding of the country’s historical legacy but also provides valuable insights into the complex interplay of diverse cultural, social, and political forces that have shaped human development over millennia. A comprehensive and scientifically grounded approach to history allows for a nuanced appreciation of the material and spiritual dimensions of past societies and their contributions to the broader trajectory of world civilization.

The term “civilization” originates from the Latin word civilis, which refers to “pertaining to citizens” or a “system composed of free members of society, reflecting statehood.” In the social sciences, the concept of civilization is primarily used to denote culture and all aspects of cultural development. In concise terms, civilization encompasses the way of life and economic activities of people living in a particular region, the interactions among these communities, the material and spiritual culture created over time, as well as the creative capabilities and achievements of humans throughout societal development. From this perspective, civilization serves as a fundamental measure of human progress. Consequently, the civilization that developed in the territory of present-day Uzbekistan is recognized as an integral part of world civilization.

The achievements of peoples across various regions throughout history including social, economic, and cultural advancements are encapsulated in the concept of civilization. These stages of development are closely linked with the emergence and evolution of humanity, the level of societal development, the growth of material and spiritual culture, and interactions among tribes and nations. Recent comprehensive historical and archaeological research in Central Asia and neighboring regions has demonstrated the region’s vital role in the formation and advancement of ancient Eastern civilizations. Archaeological findings, written sources, and material cultural artifacts corroborate this conclusion. As a result, terms such as “Central Asian Civilization,” “Turan Civilization,” and “Uzbekistan Civilization” have become widely employed in historical scholarship. These concepts serve as crucial scientific categories, illustrating the ancient developmental trajectory of Uzbekistan and its unique role in the emergence of world civilization.

Geographically, the territory of modern Uzbekistan is situated at the center of the Eurasian region, at the crossroads of important trade and cultural routes, which historically positioned it as a point of interaction between Eastern and Western worlds during the earliest stages of human history. Consequently, contemporary historical research emphasizes the importance of studying Uzbekistan’s history as an inseparable, integral component of world civilization.

It is important to note that Central Asian civilization developed differently across various regions and periods. For instance, ancient tribes in the southern areas of the region transitioned to agriculture by the 6th millennium BCE and developed productive farming, whereas northern tribes primarily engaged in early forms of hunting, fishing, and animal husbandry. Such variations can be explained by natural-geographical conditions and interregional interactions. Careful analysis of cultural differences across the mountains, plains, and river valleys such as the Kopetdag, Hisor, Zarafshan foothills, and the plains of Jizzakh, Kashkadarya, and Zarafshan reveals the diverse economic and cultural development within ancient Uzbekistan, forming a complex historical map of its civilization.

Additionally, during the Neolithic period (11 th - 4 th millennia BCE), interactions among ancient populations in Central Asia and their connections with other centers of civilization in the Ancient East significantly influenced the development of local civilizations. Students should particularly understand that the formation and progressive development of Uzbekistan’s civilization were based on a system of regional and trans-regional socio-economic and cultural connections. In this sense, the development of cultural civilization represents a complex historical process, intimately connected with:

- the emergence, dissemination, and evolution of economic and productive activities;

- the formation and advancement of early governance structures;

- the settlement patterns, migrations, and ethnogenesis of ancient populations;

- the establishment of statehood, urbanization, and the development of urban culture;

- the organization and growth of local and regional trade, including product exchange;

- the use of early transportation and draft animals;

- related social, political, economic, and cultural processes.

As previously noted, Uzbekistan - and Central Asia in general - has historically been situated at the crossroads of international trade and communication routes, developing long-standing traditions in craftsmanship, agriculture, and commerce. Research conducted in this region has provided a broad scientific perspective on the development of local civilizations. In particular, numerous material cultural artifacts uncovered through these studies confirm the advanced cultural development achieved by the peoples of Central Asia. Moreover, these findings demonstrate that such cultures were already well established long before their mention in early written sources, including Assyrian documents, the Avesta, inscriptions of ancient rulers, and the works of ancient Greek, Roman, and Chinese historians and geographers.

In contemporary scholarship, the development of civilizations is conventionally divided into two main stages. 

The first stage comprises the primary civilizations that emerged in the earliest centers of agriculture or their neighboring regions. These include ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, Mesoamerica, and the Andean civilizations. The interactions between these primary civilizations and the conditions allowing their achievements to spread to other regions subsequently gave rise to secondary civilizations. Examples of these include Syria, Bactria, Margiana, Anatolia, Minoan, Mycenaean, Japan, and others. While the cultures of these secondary civilizations share similarities with those of the primary ones, they also exhibit distinct characteristics. In some cases, these processes led to the emergence of independent civilizations, such as those of the ancient classical world.

The second stage is characterized by the continuous expansion of secondary civilizations, encompassing large populations and sometimes uniting multiple local civilizations. This stage saw the emergence of complex social, religious, and philosophical systems, alongside intellectual and ideological formations. In Central Asia, this phase occurred during the 8th - 6th centuries BCE, in India during the 6th - 3rd centuries BCE, in China during the 3rd - 2nd centuries BCE, in Europe during the Common Era, and in South America in the 15th century CE.

In conclusion, regardless of whether a civilization is primary or secondary, it represents a distinct historical stage of social development characterized by agriculture and craftsmanship, urban development, written language, and organized religious and ideological systems.

Regarding human origins, a significant number of scholars assert that Africa was the cradle of humankind, while another group proposes Europe as the point of origin. Some scholars even suggest that humans initially appeared in southern Asia. The study of human origins and development - referred to as anthropogenesis - has been a central issue for centuries, generating diverse theories. Philosophers from various civilizations have attempted to provide scientific explanations for human emergence. For instance, Chinese and Greek thinkers of the 6 th – 5 th centuries BCE tried to explain human origin as a natural phenomenon. While many researchers emphasize that humans reached their current state through labor and intellectual development, alternative theories, including divine creation or extraterrestrial origins, also exist.

According to scientific estimates, the Earth formed approximately five billion years ago, initially devoid of life. Geologically, the Earth’s history is divided into the Archean, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. During the late Archean, simple life forms appeared, followed in the Paleozoic by aquatic and terrestrial animals. In the Mesozoic, reptiles emerged, and in the Cenozoic, mammals appeared. The fourth period of the Cenozoic, dating roughly 3 - 3.5 million years ago, witnessed the emergence of the first human ancestors.

The origin of humanity is a highly complex issue, primarily studied through archaeological and anthropological evidence. However, there also exist mythological, legendary, theological, and cosmological theories regarding human emergence. For instance, in all monotheistic religious teachings, the origin or creation of humans is attributed to divine intervention. According to the teachings of the Bible, humankind was created by God approximately 7.000 years ago from “red clay.” In the Holy Qur’an, it is emphasized that humans were created from clay and that God breathed life into them by His will. Similar narratives are also present in Zoroastrianism. The first representatives of humanity are named in these traditions as Adam and Eve in the Bible, Adam and Hawwa (Eve) in the Qur’an, and Iyyim in Zoroastrian accounts.

In addition, some European scholars have proposed theories suggesting that humans originated from microscopic organisms (such as bacteria) or from creatures descending from outer space resembling human forms. Secular sciences, particularly the discipline of history, examine these ideas and theories including contemporary hypotheses such as “invisible humans” or “extraterrestrial humans” - without outright rejecting them, but instead focus on studying anthropogenesis based on evidence derived from scientific research.

In the discipline of history, it is recognized that humanity is an integral part of nature, emerging at a certain stage of its development and continuously evolving through persistent effort and labor. These conclusions take precedence over other existing theories and narratives regarding human origin. The scientific study of human emergence and development is termed anthropogenesis (from the Greek “anthropos” – human, “genesis” – origin or development). In scholarly literature, the process of anthropogenesis is generally examined in four stages:

1. The earliest human ancestors.

2. The oldest humans.

3. Ancient humans.

4. Modern humans.

The concept of humans’ connection to the animal kingdom is attributed to the English scientist Charles Darwin, whose theory emphasizes that the main factors in humans’ divergence from other animals are natural selection and sexual selection. Sociologists, however, highlight the crucial role of labor in this process. English researchers, the father-son duo Leakey, conducted excavations in the Olduvai Gorge in East Africa during the 1950 s and 1960 s. They discovered primitive stone tools and fossilized human bones, proposing that these beings had lived approximately 3 to 3.5 million years ago.

In scientific studies, the earliest humans are classified as Australopithecus, Zinjanthropus, Pithecanthropus, and Sinanthropus, all of which belong to the species Homo habilis (“handy man”). Australopithecus (from Latin australis – southern, pithecus – ape, i.e., “southern ape”) appeared approximately 6–5 million years ago. They were capable of walking upright, created primitive stone tools, and initiated labor activities, marking them as the first human ancestors of historical significance.

The oldest human ancestors, Zinjanthropus, Pithecanthropus, and Sinanthropus, represent the initial stages of human evolution. Zinjanthropus, discovered near the village of Zinj in Tanzania, lived around 2–1.5 million years ago and, as an Australopithecus type, was able to walk upright and craft basic stone tools. Pithecanthropus, meaning “ape-man,” was found on the island of Java, Indonesia, at the end of the 19th century, dating to approximately 1 million 700 - 600 thousand years ago. Sinanthropus, or “Chinese man,” was discovered in China in 1927 and dates back to around 600 - 500 thousand years ago. These species belong to Homo erectus, the upright-walking human. They made stone tools and used them for hunting and gathering roots and fruits. Their adaptation to the environment, hunting practices, and tool-making abilities distinguished them from the animal kingdom.

Archanthropus refers to the earliest ape-like humans exhibiting initial human traits. Unlike these ancient humans, Neanderthals, whose remains were first found in Germany’s Neander Valley, lived approximately 100 - 50 thousand years ago. Neanderthals were physically robust, with an estimated lifespan of 25 - 26 years, and were proficient in making various stone tools. Although some features of their appearance, body structure, and cognitive abilities retained animal-like characteristics, they were much closer to modern humans. Their brain size was relatively smaller, but their cognitive and adaptive abilities had significantly developed. Neanderthal remains have been discovered across Africa, the Mediterranean, Central Asia, the Near and Middle East, the Black Sea region, and parts of Europe and Asia.

In 1968, researchers excavated an ancient burial site in the Cro - Magnon cave in France’s Dordogne region, uncovering five individuals. These humans, tall (approximately 180 cm) and resembling modern humans in physical appearance and brain size, were named Cro-Magnon man, i.e., Homo sapiens (intelligent, reasoning human). To date, modern human remains have been discovered in over one hundred locations worldwide. By the Cro-Magnon period, humans’ biological and physical appearance had become nearly indistinguishable from contemporary humans. This era also corresponds to the emergence of agricultural communities, marking the initial stages of social relations, labor division, and cultural development in human societies.

During the developmental stages of the earliest humans, the variety and quality of labor tools steadily increased. This advancement brought significant changes in humans’ lifestyle and physical appearance. Simultaneously, brain size gradually expanded, leading to more complex cognitive processes. During the Middle Stone Age, under the influence of various natural and social factors, particularly as a result of continuous labor, the Neanderthal-like humans slowly evolved into modern humans. They improved both physically and mentally, giving rise to humans resembling contemporary people, thus marking the culmination of the anthropogenesis process.

The emergence of humans is one of the greatest phenomena on Earth. Our ancestors, who initially crafted simple stone tools, through continuous labor, exploration, and reasoning, eventually reached a stage of high cultural achievement. Archaeological evidence clearly demonstrates the transformative role of labor in the anthropogenesis process. The exchange and progressive development of material culture artifacts across different periods indicate the historical continuity of this process. This long-term historical evolution shows that labor has been the primary driving force in human and societal development. The entire evolutionary trajectory of humanity is, therefore, a history of striving for improvement through labor, cognition, and creativity.

2.2. Characteristics of the paleolithic, mesolithic, and neolithic periods.

In scientific research, the earliest period of our history is historically divided into two major stages: the primitive band and the seed-sowing community periods. The seed-sowing community, in turn, is subdivided into two stages: matriarchal (mother lineage) and patriarchal (father lineage) periods. From an archaeological perspective, the earliest stage of human history is classified according to the development and refinement of labor tools into several periods: Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Eneolithic, Bronze, and Early Iron Ages. The Paleolithic (from Greek palaeos – ancient, lithos – stone) is the oldest period of human history, dating back approximately three million years. This era is primarily known as the age of stone tools. Over thousands of years, humans improved stone-working techniques and gradually enhanced their lifestyle and living conditions to adapt to their environment.

Archaeologically, the Paleolithic is divided into three stages: Early, Middle, and Late Paleolithic. These stages belong to the archaeological periodization system and are distinguished based on the raw materials, manufacturing techniques, and use of labor tools in primitive societies. It is important to note that this classification reflects the evolution of tool - making techniques, rather than social relations. Therefore, studying the Paleolithic period is crucial for understanding the origins of human thought and culture. During the Early Paleolithic (approximately 1.5 - 2 million years ago), climates varied: subtropical in Southern and Central Europe, and tropical in South Asia and Africa. Warm-blooded animals were widespread in these regions. For instance, elephants, hippopotamuses, and wild horses lived in Europe, while primitive oxen, rhinoceroses, horses, and zebras inhabited Asia. Similarly, warm-climate plants were abundant.

Until recently, it was widely believed that the territory of present-day Uzbekistan was first inhabited by humans around 100,000 years ago, and many researchers linked the history of the Paleolithic in Central Asia to that of Europe. However, recent archaeological studies in Uzbekistan have provided new insights. In the 1980 s, under the leadership of archaeologist U.Islamov, a research team discovered a Paleolithic site in the Selungur cave in the Fergana Valley (Soh district). According to the study, Selungur belongs to the Early Paleolithic and contains five cultural layers with thicknesses ranging from 30 cm to 1 meter. Stone tools made from natural rock fragments and broken stones were found, including hand axes, rounded axes, knife-like implements, serrated tools, and bird-beak-shaped tools. In addition, over 5,000 bone remains of 32 species of mammals were discovered.

The Selungur findings also include the jawbone, teeth, and shoulder bone of an ancient human, which are of great scientific significance. Scholars estimate that the Selungur artifacts are over one million years old. The shape and manufacturing techniques of the tools closely resemble those of the Olduvai culture. These discoveries, referred to as the “Fergana Man” (Fergantrop), provide new insights into the earliest period of human history and scientifically confirm that Central Asia, particularly Uzbekistan, was one of the centers of early human development.

Archaeological findings in the territory of Uzbekistan related to the Lower Paleolithic clearly demonstrate that the region was one of the ancient cradles of human civilization. During this period, humans produced stone tools and engaged in subsistence activities such as hunting, gathering, and self-preservation. The creation and gradual refinement of stone tools were closely connected with the intellectual development and labor activities of early humans. Archaeological research has identified several important Lower Paleolithic sites, among which Koʻlbuloq, Qizilolmasoy, and Toshsoy in the Tashkent region are particularly significant. Excavations at Kulbuloq conducted between 1993 and 1998 revealed cultural layers corresponding to the Early, Middle, and Late Paleolithic periods. From these layers, various stone implements - including choppers, cores, scrapers, and pounders were recovered. These artifacts represent some of the most primitive forms of labor tools and illustrate their stages of development. Additionally, stone tools of the Lower Paleolithic have been discovered at the Onarcha site in the Tianshan foothills (Kyrgyzstan) and at Qoratov in the Pamir foothills (Southern Tajikistan). These findings indicate that early human activity was not confined to a single part of Central Asia but was widespread across the region.

Research results suggest that during the Lower Paleolithic, humans gradually improved their methods of tool-making. This process represents a crucial step in human evolution, reflecting the early stages of thought, planning, and labor activity. Approximately 500.000 to 1.000.000 years ago, early humans had developed a rudimentary material culture. They used stone tools for hunting, engaged in gathering, and adapted to their natural environment. This evidence indicates that Central Asia, including the present-day territory of Uzbekistan, provided favorable conditions for the emergence of early human societies.

The tools of Lower Paleolithic populations (specifically those associated with the Acheulean culture) were simple, large, and rudimentary, primarily used for cutting, striking, or scraping. These implements reflect the initial stages of human intellectual and physical development. Accordingly, the artifacts found at Kulbuloq, Qizilolmasoy, Toshsoy, Onarcha, and Qoratov not only confirm that Uzbekistan was inhabited by early humans from very ancient times but also demonstrate that the formation and evolution of material culture in this region are closely linked to the earliest stages of human civilization.

The Middle Paleolithic (Mousterian culture) constitutes a significant and integral phase of the ancient Stone Age. By the Middle Paleolithic period (approximately 100.000 – 40.000 years ago), Neanderthal humans had begun to spread across vast territories and developed more active interactions with their natural environment compared to earlier periods. During this time, climatic conditions changed significantly, with large parts of Europe, Asia, and the Americas covered by extensive glaciers. Consequently, cold-resistant animals such as mammoths, reindeer, and bears became widespread. The movement and expansion of glaciers led to cooler climates, prompting Neanderthals to adapt to these new living conditions. Their adaptation involved multiple strategies, including protection from the cold, seeking shelter, wearing clothing, and the discovery and controlled use of fire. Moreover, during this period, humans began to develop basic knowledge of their environment, initiating processes of observation, reasoning, and understanding reality. They formed simple concepts about the world around them and gradually assimilated primitive forms of worldview and knowledge.

The types and functions of stone tools became significantly more sophisticated during the Middle Paleolithic. Today, archaeologists have identified over 60 types of stone implements from this period, with pointed tools and scrapers being among the most prevalent. In the territory of Uzbekistan, the earliest Middle Paleolithic site is the Teshiktosh Cave in the Surkhandarya region, discovered in 1938 by archaeologist A.P. Okladnikov. Subsequently, numerous Middle Paleolithic sites were identified and studied across Central Asia, including Omonqoton (Takhta-Karacha Pass, Samarkand), Qutirbuloq and Zirabuloq (Zarafshan Valley), Qorabura (Vakhsh Valley), Jarqurgon (Northern Tajikistan), Obirakhmat (Tashkent region), the upper layers of Kulbuloq (Tashkent region), Qizilnur (Kyzylkum), Tossor (Kyrgyzstan), Ogzikichik (Tajikistan), Khojakent (Tashkent region), and Qopchigay (Kyrgyzstan).

Archaeological research indicates that the Middle Paleolithic in Central Asia spans roughly 100.000 – 40.000 BCE, representing a critical stage in human development. The Teshik-Tosh Cave, located in the Boysun Mountains of the Surkhan Valley, is an important archaeological site not only for Uzbekistan but also for global research. The cave, belonging to the Middle Paleolithic, measures approximately 20 meters in width, 9 meters in height, and 21 meters in depth. Excavations revealed five cultural layers, yielding over 3.000 stone tools. In addition, remains of tigers, wild horses, donkeys, rabbits, and birds were discovered. Among the most significant findings at Teshik-Tosh is the skeleton of a nine-year-old Neanderthal child, interred according to a primitive burial ritual, wrapped in ibex horns. Traces of hearths and layers of ash were also found within the cave.

The Obirahmat site in the Tashkent region was discovered in 1962 and is located in the upper reaches of the Palatov Valley within the Tyan-Shan Chatqol range. Facing south, this flat cave is well-lit and contains 21 cultural layers with a total thickness of 10 meters, indicating prolonged human habitation. Excavations yielded over 30.000 flint tools, including cores, flakes, sharp-pointed awls, scrapers, and cutting implements. Additionally, artifacts made from animal bones, as well as remains of ibex, ostrich, argali, gazelle, and other animals, were found alongside ash, charcoal, and various other objects. According to researchers, Neanderthal humans occupied Obirahmat between 120.000 and 40.000 years ago, engaging in gathering and hunting for subsistence.

The Qutirbuloq site, located in the Kattakurgan district of the Samarkand region, is renowned for its rich assemblage of artifacts. Excavations revealed five cultural layers of varying thickness, with an uneven distribution of finds. Among the artifacts discovered were pointed chisels, scrapers, perforating tools, bifacial leaf-shaped implements, and various other stone tools. Animal remains, including those of elephants, bison, wild horses, and rabbits, were also recovered. Evidence suggests that early humans in this area relied on plant gathering and root consumption as well as hunting. Other Middle Paleolithic sites in the region include the Amir Temur Cave in the Boysun Mountains, Khojakent, Buzsuv, and Qulbuloq in the Tashkent region, Jarkuton and Buribuloq in the Fergana Valley, and Omonqoton, Turgarra, and Qutirbuloq in the Zarafshan Valley.

By the Middle Paleolithic period, early humans had begun to spread across a broad region of Central Asia. In the later stages of this period, notable developments occurred in lifestyle and tool technology, including an increase in the variety of implements such as pointed spear-like chisels, knives, scrapers, and cutting tools. A key characteristic of this period is the beginning of the transition from primitive “band” societies to more organized gathering communities. These developments laid the foundation for the emergence of humans of the Cro-Magnon type, closely resembling modern Homo sapiens.

The Upper Paleolithic represents the final stage of the ancient Stone Age, roughly spanning 40.000 – 12.000 BCE. Although less studied than the Mousterian culture, over thirty sites have been identified in Central Asia, including Samarqand, Khojagor (Fergana), Shugnov (Pamir), Kolbulak (Tashkent region), Korakamar (Tajikistan), and Achisay (Kazakhstan). During this period, modern human physical characteristics became established, and the transition from primitive band structures to gathering-based communities began. Stone tool production techniques improved significantly, with long and flat blade-like implements becoming common. Bone tools, including harpoons, needles, and other objects, also emerged for the first time. Archaeological evidence suggests considerable changes in social life, with hunting and gathering as the primary activities: men engaged in hunting, while women were responsible for gathering, managing fire, and other household tasks. Consequently, the societies of this period are often described as matriarchal, led by women in lineage-based communities.

By the Upper Paleolithic, the physical characteristics of modern humans had fully developed, and the three major racial groups - Caucasoid, Negroid, and Mongoloid - emerged. These groups differed in skin color, hair and eye shape, stature, cranial structure, and facial features. The formation of these races was strongly influenced by natural and geographical conditions. For instance, Negroid populations predominantly inhabited Africa, Caucasoids were concentrated in Europe, and Mongoloids in various regions of Asia. In the Tashkent region, the upper three layers of the Kolbulak site in the Urta Chirchiq - Ohangaron area belong to the Upper Paleolithic period. Excavations revealed advanced stone tools and numerous animal bones. Furthermore, recent studies have confirmed that the Bozsuv I site, located to the west of Tashkent, also dates to the Upper Paleolithic. The Samarqand site, discovered in 1939, is among the oldest and largest Upper Paleolithic sites in Central Asia. This multi-layered site yielded over 7,500 artifacts, including scrapers, cutting tools, pointed implements, knives, axes, hearth remains, fragments of charcoal, animal and plant remains, and even skeletal remains of Cro-Magnon humans. These findings indicate that the inhabitants of this region relied on both hunting and gathering for subsistence.

In addition, several notable Upper Paleolithic sites have been discovered within the territory of Uzbekistan. The most significant among them include:

The Bozsuv I site in Tashkent city, corresponding to the present-day Qoraqamishsoy and Erkin residential areas, yielded over 100 stone tools during excavations, including knives, scrapers, and other implements.

The Bozsuv II site, located along the Buzsuv bank in the Shoralisoiy area of Tashkent city, produced more than 100 stone tools, such as bifacially worked knives, scrapers, and cores, which were systematically studied.

The Tuyabugoz sites, located in the Tashkent region around the Tuyabugoz reservoir, comprise six Upper Paleolithic localities. Numerous stone implements, including flakes, perforators, and scrapers, were recovered from these sites.

The Takalisoy Cave in the Samarkand region yielded cores, scrapers, stone knives, and various animal bones. The primary occupation of its ancient inhabitants appears to have been hunting.

The Xujamazgil site, also in the Samarkand region, produced tools made from variously colored flint. Researchers divide the Upper Paleolithic culture of Central Asia into three cultural complexes: Samarkand, Xujailgor, and Kulbulok. Skeletal remains of Upper Paleolithic humans have been found only in Samarkand, believed to belong to a Cro - Magnon female aged approximately 25 - 30 years.

By this period, significant changes occurred in human lifestyle: people began to leave caves, inhabit semi-subterranean dwellings, and settle not only in mountains but also in valleys and plains. Kin - based communities formed, paired households emerged, and these gradually united into clan-based groups. In conclusion, during the Paleolithic, anthropogenesis - the formation of modern humans was largely completed. Humans transitioned from simple subsistence practices to more complex activities, learned to use fire, and community structures evolved from tribal groups to clan-based systems. Stone tools progressively improved in both type and quality, and the earliest religious notions appeared. For instance, the burial of the Neanderthal child found at Teshik-Tosh, accompanied by goat horns and stone tools, indicates that even in this early period, humans practiced basic funeral rituals.

2.3. Eneolithic cultures and their significance

The subsequent stage of the Stone Age, known as the Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), in Central Asia dates approximately to the period between the 12th and 7th millennia BCE. During this era, human populations expanded widely across the landscape, gradually inhabiting northern territories as well as high mountainous regions such as the Pamirs. To date, more than fifty Mesolithic sites have been identified in Central Asia, including Machay, Obishir, Bozsuv, Qushilish, Daryoi Shur, and others.

Although scholarly debates have existed regarding the classification, terminology, and chronological boundaries of the Mesolithic, it has ultimately been recognized as the middle stage of the Stone Age based on significant innovations in stone tool morphology and manufacturing techniques. Following the retreat of global glaciation toward the north, climatic conditions became more stable, and the flora and fauna began to resemble those of the present day. As large game animals declined, smaller and more agile species such as gazelles, deer, hares, and mountain goats became more prevalent.

These environmental changes led to notable transformations in Mesolithic lifeways. Humans mastered the production of microliths small, finely crafted stone tools and increasingly used bone and wooden hafts. One of the most significant technological breakthroughs of this period was the invention of the bow and arrow, which greatly enhanced hunting efficiency and expanded opportunities for capturing smaller animals. Among the major achievements of the Mesolithic period was the gradual domestication of certain wild animals, particularly dogs, sheep, and goats. This era marked the initial transition from gathering to plant cultivation and from hunting to early pastoralism. Such socio-economic developments were closely interconnected with natural and geographical conditions.

One of the most important Mesolithic sites in Central Asia is the Machat Cave (Boysun region), where two cultural layers have yielded a wide range of stone and bone tools, including knives, saws, cutters, needles, awls, spearheads, and other implements. Particularly significant are the human skeletal remains discovered at the site, which indicate that the Mesolithic population of southern Central Asia belonged to the Europoid racial group. Additionally, the presence of burned animal bones confirms the extensive use of fire and the central role of hunting in subsistence practices.

Another notable site in the region is Ayritom, where refined stone tools such as drills, cores, and flakes have been uncovered. The Obishir Cave in the Fergana Valley has produced knives, scrapers, bone awls, and stone sinkers associated with fishing activities, demonstrating that Mesolithic communities relied on a mixed economy of hunting, gathering, and fishing. In recent decades, more than eighty Mesolithic sites have been discovered in Central Fergana. The majority are located near lakeshores, providing favorable living conditions for prehistoric populations. The abundance of small, sharp, and compact stone tools among the finds clearly indicates that Mesolithic technology represented a significant advancement compared to that of the Paleolithic period.

The Mesolithic sites of Central Fergana are predominantly open-air settlements characterized by clearly defined cultural layers. The population of this period sustained their livelihoods through hunting, fishing, and gathering. Archaeological research conventionally divides the Mesolithic of this region into two main stages.

The Early Mesolithic, dated to the ninth - eighth millennia BCE, is represented by sites such as Ittak Qala, Achchikol, Yangiqadam, and Toypoqkol.

The Late Mesolithic, corresponding to the seventh millennium BCE, is associated with the upper cultural layers of sites including Achchikul, Yangiqadam, Bekobod, Shurkol, Madiyor, and Zambar.

The Qushilish Mesolithic site, located near Tashkent, dates to the eleventh–tenth millennia BCE. Archaeological excavations at this site have yielded flint tools, knives, and polished stone artifacts. The communities inhabiting this area relied primarily on hunting and gathering for subsistence. By the eleventh–tenth millennia BCE, Mesolithic populations had expanded across a vast territory stretching from the Caspian Sea region to the Pamirs, and from the Kopetdag Mountains to present-day Kazakhstan. Their settlements were typically situated along riverbanks, foothill zones, and lowland plains. Archaeological evidence from this period indicates the early stages of animal domestication, signaling the gradual emergence of pastoral practices.

In Central Asia, the Neolithic period encompasses approximately the sixth to fourth millennia BCE and is distinguished by the formation of three major archaeological cultures: Joytun, Kaltaminor, and Hisor. Neolithic communities generally settled near rivers and lakes and practiced a mixed economy that included hunting, fishing, early agriculture, and animal husbandry. One of the defining features of the Neolithic era was the significant improvement of tools and the increasing importance of collective labor. During this period, new forms of economic activity emerged, including textile production, boat construction, pottery making, and advanced techniques of stone and bone working such as grinding and drilling. Kin-based social organization became firmly established, and women held a relatively prominent position within society.

The earliest sites associated with the Kaltaminor culture have been discovered along the Amu Darya River and within the Khorezm region. Among these, Jonbosqala occupies a central place. Archaeological investigations reveal the presence of semi-subterranean dwellings supported by wooden posts. Finds from the site include a central hearth surrounded by smaller fireplaces, flint tools, spearheads, arrowheads, animal bones, and pottery fragments. These materials are dated to the fifth–fourth millennia BCE. Kaltaminor-related sites have also been identified in the foothills of the Zarafshan Valley. Ceramic assemblages recovered from Darvozagir, Katta Tuzkon, Kichik Tuzkon, Qorong‘ishur, and Poykent closely resemble those from Jonbosqala, leading scholars to attribute them to the fourth–third millennia BCE within the framework of the Kaltaminor culture. The inhabitants of this culture primarily depended on gathering and hunting, particularly targeting gazelles, wild boars, and other game animals.

In recent years, numerous Neolithic sites have been discovered in the eastern regions of Central Asia, especially within the Hisor–Pamirs mountain system. These sites are collectively referred to in scholarship as the Hisor culture. More than 200 archaeological sites, including Tuttovul, Soysayyod, Quyibulyon, Darayi Shur, and Gaziyontepa, have been documented. The Hisor culture is dated to the fifth–third millennia BCE, and its population engaged in pottery production, animal husbandry, hunting, and limited gathering activities.

Neolithic sites are widely distributed across nearly all regions of Central Asia, ranging from the Ustyurt Plateau to the Kyzylkum and Karakum deserts, as well as the Qashqadaryo, Zarafshan, Tashkent, and Fergana valleys. The Neolithic sites of Central Fergana are recognized in academic literature as representing the fourth major Neolithic cultural tradition of Central Asia. Archaeological data demonstrate that tools first developed during the late Mesolithic, such as stone axes, blades, spearheads, arrowheads, knives, borers, and other implements, underwent further refinement during the Neolithic period. By this stage, the fundamental achievements attained during the earliest phases of human social development were consolidated and transformed, marking the transition to a qualitatively new level of cultural and economic organization.

One of the most significant innovations of the Neolithic period was the emergence of agriculture and animal husbandry. Based on long-term observation and accumulated experience, humans succeeded in developing more productive forms of subsistence economy. Variations in geographical and environmental conditions led to diversity in the economic practices of different tribes. While agriculture, pastoralism, and handicrafts developed rapidly in southern Central Asia, progress in the northern regions proceeded more slowly due to less favorable natural conditions. Neolithic communities mastered pottery production through the firing of clay vessels, textile production through spinning, and boat building. The formation of occupations such as farming, herding, pottery making, and weaving accelerated the socio-economic development of society and fundamentally transformed ways of life. Differences in environmental conditions between regions caused relative inequalities in economic activity among tribes and contributed to the emergence of diverse forms of material culture. Overall, the Neolithic period represented a qualitatively new stage in human history and laid the foundation for the subsequent Metal Ages.

Research indicates that as a result of these developments, a distinctive transitional stage emerged between the Stone Age and the Bronze Age, known as the Eneolithic or Chalcolithic period. Although the earliest human engagement with metal began during the Eneolithic, tools of this period were not yet fully metal-based and were primarily made of pure copper. Due to copper’s softness and low durability, it was unable to assume a dominant role in economic life, and stone tools continued to serve as the principal means of labor for an extended period. In Central Asia, the Eneolithic period dates to the late fourth millennium BCE and the beginning of the third millennium BCE. The cultures that emerged during this time preserved Neolithic traditions while simultaneously introducing humanity’s earliest experiences with metal, thereby opening the way to new methods of production and economic organization. Eneolithic cultures played a crucial transitional role, forming the foundation for the development of the Bronze Age, the improvement of metal tools, and the emergence of new forms of craftsmanship.

The evidence presented above demonstrates that the cultural and economic development of tribes inhabiting Central Asia was uneven. With the transition to the Chalcolithic period, a new stage of production and economic life began. Favorable natural conditions in southern Turkmenistan facilitated the establishment of agriculture, animal husbandry, and handicrafts, whereas tribes living in the Zarafshan Valley and the lower Amu Darya basin had not yet adopted the cultivation of domesticated crops. In mountainous regions, hunting remained the primary form of subsistence for a prolonged period. Consequently, significant disparities existed in the socio-economic development of Central Asian populations during the Eneolithic period. Material evidence such as pottery fragments, stone tools, and animal bones discovered along riverbanks and foothill zones indicates that hunting and fishing continued to play an important role in Eneolithic life. At the same time, the earliest forms of animal husbandry began to emerge. Natural resources thus remained the principal means of subsistence for the populations of this period.

Major Eneolithic sites have been identified in southern Turkmenistan, particularly at Anau and Namazga Tepe. Archaeological investigations at these sites have revealed mud-brick dwellings, ceramic vessels decorated with painted designs, and some of the earliest copper objects. These findings indicate a relatively advanced level of pottery production and craft specialization. The materials from these sites are generally dated to the fourth millennium BCE.

Although Chalcolithic sites within the territory of present-day Uzbekistan remain insufficiently studied, finds associated with the Kaltaminor cultural complex demonstrate a wide distribution of stone tools, ceramic vessels, and early copper objects, especially in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya and Zarafshan rivers. In addition, archaeological sites such as Lavlakon, Beshbuloq, and Zamonbobo in the Bukhara oasis are also attributed to the Eneolithic period.

One of the most significant Chalcolithic centers in Central Asia is the settlement of Sarazm, located in the Upper Zarafshan region. The earliest cultural layers of Sarazm belong to the Eneolithic period. Excavations have uncovered residential structures, pottery, stone and metal tools, as well as ornaments, indicating that Sarazm functioned as a highly developed agricultural and craft center. The archaeological materials from Sarazm further suggest the existence of extensive cultural and economic connections with regions such as southern Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Iran, and the Indian subcontinent, highlighting its role as an important hub of early interregional interaction.

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